 |
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| | 1. Introduction | |
| | Indonesian archipelagos and its surrounding is one of the most seismically active regions in the world and has very complicated plate convergence. The complexity of tectonic feature is still less known quantitatively on the natural of earthquake and their accompanying tsunamis. Indonesian have numerous and severe occurrences of earthquake and tsunami disaster as given by Utsu (1992). Ibrahim et al. (1989) have been elaborated Indonesia earthquakes data and found at least an average of about 460 earthquakes whose magnitude grater than 4.0 occurred every year. Puspito (1995) have been plotted the seismicity map of Indonesia. He gave also the estimation of maximum seismic moment, focal mechanism, compression and tension axes, and earthquake slip direction quake. Ismail (1989) also have been compiled the historical data tsunami in Indonesia. | |
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| | 2. Tectonics Setting | |
| | The complexity of tectonic feature of the plate boundary, plate motion, and direction in Indonesia region are shown in Figure.1. The region is place of complex convergence of Eurasian, Indian-Australian, Caroline, and Philippine Sea plates and several minor plates (e.g. Hamilton, 1979). The plates are moving relatively to each other in a rather complicated manner. Relative to Eurasian plate, the Indian-Australian plate is moving approximately northward, whereas the Philippine sea plate approximately west-northwestward (Hamilton, 1979, Puspito, 1995). Relative to the Philippine Sea plate, the Caroline plate is moving approximately east-southeastward near the Aru though and west-northwestward near the Yap trench (Seno et. al., 1992). | |
| | | |
| |  | |
| | | Figure 1 | Tectonic and plate boundaries in Indonesia. Large arrows indicate the direction of plate motion, triangles active volcanoes. | | |
| | | |
| | Major plate boundaries in the Indonesia and its surrounding may be described briefly as follows: The convergence between the Indian Ocean and the Eurasian plates is taking place along the Java trench. The rate of plate convergence is approximately about 6 cm/yr. (Hamilton, 1979). The Sunda arc, a product of plate convergence between the Indian Ocean and Eurasian plates, extend westward from Sumba passing through Java, Sumatera and the Andaman islands. The Timor trough is the place of convergence between the continental Australian and the Eurasian plates with rate of plate convergence of about 8 cm/yr. (Hamilton, 1979). The Sangihe and Halmahera arcs of Molluca sea collision zone, and Sulawesi arc. The Sangihe volcanic arc and the Halmahera arc are located parallel to each other in the Molluca sea region. The arcs move in opposite directions to in close the collision zone. The Banda arc extends westward from Sumba passing through Tanimbar and Aru Island and thence curves sharply counterclockwise to a westward trend in the north through Seram and Buru. The south limb of the Banda arc illustrates the collision of the arc with the northward moving Australian plates (McCaffrey, 1988). The convergence between oceanic Caroline and the continental Australian plates are taking place along the New Guinea trench, while the Yap trench is the place of boundary between the Philippine Sea and Caroline Plates (Hamilton, 1979). The islands arc that made the Indonesian region are characterized by complicated seismological features. | |
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| | 3. Earthquakes, Volcano and tsunami Catalog | |
| | Earthquake and tsunami | |
| | Ibrahim (1989) described an average of about 460 earthquake whose magnitude grater than 4.0 occurred every year whose consist of 61% shallow, 34% intermediate, and 5% deep earthquake, and most of them are located beneath of the sea. Utsu (1992) have been tabulated destructive earthquakes in the world during the period from 1500 to August 1992 in which 25 people (or many people) were reported killed. Caused by lack of earthquake data in Indonesia during period before 19th centuries, so the periods for analysis are selected only from 1800 to August 1992. Based on the period, 769 destructive earthquakes occurred in the world, and 57 (7.4 %) occurrence of them occurred in Indonesia.
This study, the historical tsunami, during the period from 1600-1998 is being compiled. The historical data for Indonesia regions are compiled by summarizing from catalog of destructive earthquake in the world given by Prof. Utsu (1992) and then cross checking those data with data was compiled by Sulaiman (1989). Furthermore the data is added with recently earthquake and tsunami data.
About 114 destructive earthquakes are observed and 90 of them generated large tsunamis, 8 tsunamis generated by volcano eruption and one tsunami by landslide as listed in Table.1. Classification the occurrence in zone and in year decade interval is shown in Table.2. Mostly the old data (before 1970) were not good reported. However, for recently tsunami such as: 1992 Tsunami Flores, 1994 East Java Tsunami, 1996 Palu tsunami, and 1996 Irian Jaya tsunami had a good measured by International Tsunami Survey Team and have been published. | |
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| Year M D h m | | M/Dp | Tm | H(m) | | Observed Area | Zone | Province: location | | 1629 08 01 |
| 7 .0 | 4 | 15-90 |
| Maluku: Banda Naera | C
| | 1630/31 - - |
|
| 1 |
|
| Maluku: BandaNaera | C
| | 1648 |
|
|
|
|
| Maluku: Amboina | C
| | 1657 12 |
|
| 1 |
|
| Maluku: Buru Island | E
| | 1673 05 20 |
|
| 1 | Moderate |
| Maluku: Near Halmahera | E
| | 1673 08 12 |
|
| 1 |
|
| Maluku: Ternate, Amboina | E
| | 1674 02 17 |
|
| 2 | 80-100 | 2342 | Maluku: Near Ambon | C
| | 1674 05 06 |
|
| 1 |
|
| Maluku: Amboina, Hitu | C
| | 1708 11 28 |
|
| 2 | Big |
| Maluku: Amboina | E
| | 1710 03 06 |
|
| 1.5 |
|
| Maluku: Banda Naera | C
| | 1711 09 05 |
|
| 1 | Moderate |
| Maluku: Amboina bay | E
| | 1754 08 18 |
|
| 1 |
|
| Maluku:Amboina, Near Haruku | E
| | 1754 09 07 |
|
| 1 |
|
| Maluku: Haruku | E
| | 1763 09 01 |
|
| 0 |
|
| Maluku; Ambon | E
| | 1775 04 19 |
|
| 0 |
|
| Maluku:Ambon | E
| | 1797 02 10 | 0.58
100.2 |
|
| Strong |
| W. Sumatera, Padang | A | | 1799 |
|
|
| 16 |
| Sumatera | A
| | 1802 08 25 |
|
| 1 | Very big |
| Maluku: Banda Sea, Amboina | C
| | 1814 |
|
| 1 |
|
| Maluku: Banda Sea, Kiser | C
| | 1815 04 11 |
| Volc |
| 3.5 |
| NTB: Sumbawa, G. Tambora | B
| | 1816 11 27 21 15U | - 8.0
115.2 | - |
|
| 10253 | Bali | B
| | 1818 13 18 | -3.5
100.5 |
|
|
|
| Bengkulu | A | | 1820 12 29 | - 7.0
119.0 | 7.5 | 3.5 | 18-24 | 500 | S. Sulawesi:B. Kumba, Sumbawa | D | | 1833 01 29 |
|
|
|
|
| W. Sumatra: Padang, Priana | A
| | 1833 11 24 |
|
|
|
|
| Bengkulu | A
| | 1841 11 26 |
|
| 1.5 | 2.4-2.7 |
| Maluku: Bandanaera (south cost) | C
| | 1841 12 16 |
|
| 1 | 1.2-1.5 |
| Maluku: Amboina, Buru | C
| | 1843 01 5-6 | 2.08
98.23 |
|
| Large |
| N. Sumatera: Barus Is.. G. Sitoli | A | | 1846 02 14 | 0.5
127.3 |
|
| 1.2-16 | Many | Maluku Ternate Island | E
| | 1852 11 26 |
| 8.0 | 2 | 8 |
| Maluku: Ambon, Banda Naera | C
| | 1856 03 02 | 3.5
125.5 | Volc | 2 |
| 3000 | N Sul: Awu Is.: Great Sanger | E | | 1857 05 13 18 30L | -8.0
125.5 | 7.0 | 1.5 | 3.3 | 40 | NTT: Banda sea, Timor, Dili | C | | 1858 12 13 |
|
| 2 |
|
| N Sulawesi , Sangihe, Tondano | E
| | 1859 06 28 |
|
| 3 | 9 |
| Maluku: Halmahera | E
| | 1859 07 29 |
|
| 1 | Moderate |
| N. Celebes: Manado, Manila Bay | E
| | 1859 09 25 |
|
|
| Strong |
| Maluku: Maluku, Banda Naera | C
| | 1859 10 20 | -8.11
111.07 |
|
| Strong |
| E. Java: Pacitan | B | | 1859 10 25 |
|
| 1 |
|
| N Sulawesi: , Manado, Kema | E
| | 1861 02 16 |
| 8.4 |
|
| 50 | Sumatra: Batu Is., Nias Is | A
| | 1861 06 05 |
|
| 1 |
|
| E. Java: Karawang, Pakis | B
| | 1861 09 25 | -2.04
100.6 |
| 1 |
|
| Sumatra: Padang, Indrapura | A | | 1862 04 08 |
|
|
|
|
| Java Sea: Lenor | B
| | 1864 05 23 | -3.0
135.0 | - |
| 2.4-3.0 | 250 | Irian Jaya: Geelvink Bay | F | | 1864 |
|
|
|
|
| W. Sumatra: Padang, Batu | A
| | 1867 06 10 | - 7.8
110.5 | - |
|
| 327 | C. Java: Djokjakarta, Soerakarta | B | | 1871 03 03 | 0.0
128.0 | Volc | 4 | 25 | 400 | Maluku: Tagulandang Is. Buhias | E | | 1883 08 26 | -5.8
106.3 | Volc |
| 35 | 36000 | Sumatera: Sunda St., Java | A | | 1889 09 06 | 2.2
125.4 | Volc | 1 |
|
| N. Sulawesi: Ruang: Sangihe | E | | 1891 10 06 04 45 | -9.0
124.0 | 7.0 | 2 |
|
| Timor: Timor Island | C | | 1892 06 02 |
| Volc. | 1 |
|
| N. Sulawesi: Awu Is: Sangihe | E
| | 1896 04 18 |
|
|
|
| 250 | NTT: Timor Is., Alor | C
| | 1897 01 03 | 6.0
122,7 | 8.2 |
| - | 100 | N. Sulawesi: Sulu: Mindanao | E | | 1897 09 21 05 15 | 7.1
122,1 | 8.2 |
| 2-6 | 100 | N. Sulawesi: Sambuaga, Sulu | E | | 1899 09 29 17 03U | - 3.0
128.5 | 7.1 | 2 | 3-6 | 3864 | Maluku: Seram (South Coast) | E | | 1902 08 21 19 17U | 6.3
123.6 | - |
|
| Many | N. Sulawesi: Mindanao, Illama | E | | 1904 07 04 |
|
|
|
|
| W. Sumatra: Siri-siri | A
| | 1907 01 - |
|
|
|
|
| Sumatra : Western Coast | A
| | 1908 02 06 | -2.0
100.0 |
|
|
|
| W. Sumatra | A | | 1908 03 24 20 00 | -8.7
124.7 | 6.6 | 1 | 25 |
| NTT: NE Timor, Atapupu, Ende | C | | 1909 06 03 18 41U | - 2.5
101.5 | 7.3 |
|
| 200 | Sumatra: Kerinci-Jambi | A | | 1913 03 14 08 45 | 4.8
126.6 |
|
|
|
| N. Sulawesi: Passages, Sangihe | E | | 1914 05 26 |
|
|
|
| Few | Irian Jaya: Yapen Island | F
| | 1917 01 20 | - 8.3
115.0 | - |
|
| 1300 | Bali (D=157 by Tsunami) | B | | 1918 08 15 12 18 | 5.5
123.0 | 8.2 | 2.5 | 7 | Many | N. Sulawesi: Mindanao, Lebak | E | | 1921 05 14 | 0.42
117.5 |
| T |
|
| C. Sulawesi.: Sangkulirang | D | | 1927 08 07 12.37L | -8.6
121.7 | Volc | 1.5 |
| 226 | NTT; Paloeweh Is.:Rokatinda | C | | 1927 12 01 | -0.7
119.7 | 6.3 |
| 15 |
| C Sulawesi, Palu | D | | 1928 03 26 | -5.8
106.3 | Volc |
|
|
| S. Sumatera: Sunda St., Lampung | A | | 1928 08 04 | -8.4
121.7 | Volc | 1 |
|
| NTT;Paloeweh Is.:Rokatinda Volc | C | | 1928 12 19 11 37L | 7.0
124.0 | 7.3 | T |
|
| N. Sulawesi:Celebes sea | E | | 1938 02 01 19 40 | -5.0
131.3 | 8.6 | 1.5 |
|
| Maluku: Banda sea: Banda Is | C | | 1938 05 19 17 08 | -1.0
120.0 | 7.6 | 1.5 | 3 |
| C. Sulawesi; Nambara | D | | 1938 10 20 02 19 | -9.2
123.2 | 6.5 | No |
|
| NTT: East Flores: Larantuka | C | | 1961 03 16 13 45 | -8.2
122.0 | 6.3 | No |
| 2/6 | NTT: Middle Flores | C | | 1964 04 02 01 11U | 5.8
95.6 | 7.0 |
|
| 110/479 | Sumatra: | A | | 1965 01 24 00 11U | - 2.4
126.0 | 7.5/33 | 2 |
| 71 | Maluku: Seram Sea, Sanana | E | | 1967 04 11 05 09 | -3.7
119.3 | 4.9/51 |
|
| 58/100 | S. Sulawesi; Tinambung | D | | 1967 04 12 | 5.3
96.5 | 6.5 |
| Big |
| N Sumatera: Sigli | A | | 1968 08 14 22 14U | 0.7
119.7 | 7.3/23 |
| 8-10 | 392 | C Sulawesi; Tambu | D | | 1969 02 23 00 36U | - 3.1
118.8 | 6.1/13 |
| 10 | 64/97 | S. Sulawessi: Majene | D | | 1975 01 15 09 42 | -5.0
130.0 | 5.9 |
| - | 0 | Maluku: Banda Naera | C | | 1975 03 05 | -2.4
126.1 | 6.5 | 1 | 1.2 | 0 | Maluku: Sula Island, Sanana | E | | 1975 07 30 09 17 | -10.1
123.8 | 6.1 | No |
|
| NTT: Timor: Kupang | C | | 1977 08 19 06 08U | -11.1
118.5 | 7.0/33 | 3 |
| 316 | NTB; Sumbawa Island | B | | 1977 08 27 07 12 | -8.0
125.3 | 6.8 | No |
| 2/25 | NTT; Flores: Atauro Island | C | | 1979 07 18 night |
| LS | 1.5 |
| 620 | NTT: Flores: Lomblen | C
| | 1979 12 17 19 58U | - 8.4
115.9 | 6.6 |
|
| 27/200 | NTB: Sumbawa, Bali, Lombok | B | | 1982 03 12 | -4.4
128.1 | 5.8 |
|
|
| Maluku: Ambon | C | | 1982 08 19 | -0.1
121.6 | 5.2 |
|
|
| N. Sulawesi; Tomini Bay | E | | 1982 12 25 | -8.4
123.0 | 5.6 | 1 |
| 13/400 | NTT; Larantuka, (Landslide) | C | | 1983 03 12 00 54 | -4.0
127.9 | 5.8/33 |
|
| 0 | Maluku; Ambon | C | | 1984 01 08 | -2.94
118.7 | 5.9 |
|
|
| S. Sulawesi: Mamuju | D | | 1987 11 26 0143U | - 8.4
124.3 | 5.8/28 | 1 |
| 83/108 | NTT; East Flores Pantar Is | C | | 1989 07 14 20 42 | -8.1
125.1 | 6.2 | 0 |
| 7 | NTT; Alor Island | C | | 1989 07 31 17 07 | -8.1
121.4 | 6.3 | 0 |
| 2-3 | NTT; Flores: Maumere | C | | 1992 06 20 | 1.96
122.8 | 6.2 | 0 |
|
| N Sulawesi: Kwandang | E | | 1991 07 04 11 43 | -8.1
124.7 | 6.2 |
|
| 23/181 | NTT; Alor Is: , Kalabahi | C | | 1992 12 12 05 29U | - 8.5
121.9 | 7.5 | 3 | 11.2-26.2 | 1952/2126 | NTT: Flores, Babi Is | C | | 1994 01 21 02 24U | 1.0
127.7 | 7.2 |
|
| 7 | Maluku: Halmahera | E | | 1994 06 02 18 17U | -10.7
113.1 | 7.2 |
| 19.1 | 238/400 | E. Java: Banyuwangi | B | | 1995 05 14 |
|
|
| 4 | 8 | Timor: Eastern part | C
| | 1996 01 01 16.05L | - 1.1
118.8 | 7.8 |
| 3/63 | 9 | C. Sulawesi :, Palu | D | | 1996 02 17 05 59U | -0.5
136.0 | 8.0 |
| 13.7 | 107 | Irian Jaya: Biak Island | F | | 1998 11 28 2311L | -2.02
124,87 | 7.7 |
| 2.75 | 34 | Maluku: Tabona, Taliabu | E | | |
| | Table.1 List of tsunamis in Indonesia for the period 1600 to 1999 | |
| | | |
| | Note:
• MDHm : Month, Day, Hour, and minute, L : Local time, and U : UTS
• M : Magnitude, Dp: Depth in km
• Tm : Tsunami magnitude
• Volc : Volcano
• Ls : Landslide
• H : Tsunami run-up height,
• D : death / I : injured | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | Zone | A | B | C | D | E | F | All | Year | TE | TV | TE | TV | TE | TV | TL | TE | TV | TE | TV | TE | TV | TE | TV | TL | 1600-1609 |
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| 1610-1619 |
|
|
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| 1620-1629 |
|
|
|
| 1 |
|
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|
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|
|
| 1 |
|
| 1630-1639 |
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|
|
| 1 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 1 |
|
| 1640-1649 |
|
|
|
| 1 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 1 |
|
| 1650-1659 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 1 |
|
|
| 1 |
|
| 1660-1669 |
|
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| 1670-1679 |
|
|
|
| 2 |
|
|
|
| 2 |
|
|
| 4 |
|
| 1680-1689 |
|
|
|
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|
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|
|
|
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| 1690-1699 |
|
|
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| 1700-1709 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 1 |
|
|
| 1 |
|
| 1710-1719 |
|
|
|
| 1 |
|
|
|
| 1 |
|
|
| 2 |
|
| 1720-1729 |
|
|
|
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|
|
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|
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| 1730-1739 |
|
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|
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| 1740-1749 |
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 1750-1759 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 2 |
|
|
| 2 |
|
| 1760-1769 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 1 |
|
|
| 1 |
|
| 1770-1779 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 1 |
|
|
| 1 |
|
| 1780-1789 |
|
|
|
|
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| 1790-1799 | 2 |
|
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|
| 2 |
|
| 1800-1809 |
|
|
|
| 1 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 1 |
|
| 1810-1819 | 1 |
| 1 | 1 | 1 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 3 | 1 |
| 1820-1829 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 1 |
|
|
|
|
| 1 |
|
| 1830-1839 | 1 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 1 |
|
| 1840-1849 | 1 |
|
|
| 2 |
|
|
|
| 1 |
|
|
| 4 |
|
| 1850-1859 |
|
| 1 |
| 3 |
|
|
|
| 5 | 1 |
|
| 9 | 1 |
| 1860-1869 | 3 |
| 3 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 1 |
| 7 |
|
| 1870-1879 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 1 |
|
|
| 1 |
| 1880-1889 |
| 1 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 1 |
|
|
| 2 |
| 1890-1899 |
|
|
|
| 2 |
|
|
|
| 3 | 1 |
|
| 5 | 1 |
| 1900-1909 | 4 |
|
|
| 1 |
|
|
|
| 1 |
|
|
| 6 |
|
| 1910-1919 |
|
| 1 |
|
|
|
|
|
| 2 |
| 1 |
| 4 |
|
| 1920-1929 |
| 1 |
|
|
| 2 |
| 2 |
| 1 |
|
|
| 3 | 3 |
| 1930-1939 |
|
|
|
| 2 |
|
| 1 |
|
|
|
|
| 3 |
|
| 1940-1949 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
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| 1950-1959 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 1960-1969 | 2 |
|
|
| 1 |
|
| 3 |
| 1 |
|
|
| 7 |
|
| 1970-1979 |
|
| 2 |
| 4 |
| 1 |
|
| 1 |
|
|
| 7 |
| 1 | 1980-1989 |
|
|
|
| 6 |
|
| 1 |
| 1 |
|
|
| 8 |
|
| 1990-1999 |
|
| 1 |
| 3 |
|
| 1 |
| 3 |
| 1 |
| 9 |
|
| Total-1
| 14 | 2 | 9 | 1 | 32 | 2 | 1 | 9 | 0 | 28 | 4 | 3 | 0 | 95 | 9 | 1 | | Percentages of Total-1 | 14.7
% | 22.2
% | 9.5
% | 11.1
% | 33.7
% | 22.2
% | 100
% | 9.5
% | 0.0
% | 29.5
% | 44.4
% | 3.2
% | 0.0
% | 100
% | 100
% | 100
% | | Total-2 (TE+TV+TL) | 16 | 10 | 35 | 9 | 32 | 3 | 105 | | Percentages of Total-2 | 15.2
% | 9.5
% | 33.3
% | 8.6
% | 30.5
% | 2.9
% | 100
% | | |
| | Table 2
In July 19, 1979 there was one tsunami caused by a landslide (TL) at Lomblen, in Zone-C | |
| | | |
| | | • TE | : | Tsunami due to Earthquakes | | • TV | : | Tsunami due to Volcanoes | | • TL | : | Tsunami due to Landslide | | |
| | | |
| | | |
| | Volcano | |
| | The volcano have being a potential to generate tsunami are listed in Table.3. In the eruption column, years those marked with square are the eruption had been generated tsunami. | |
| | | |
| | | Name | Location | Eruption | | G.Krakatau | Sunda St. | 1680, 1681, 1883, 1898, 1927, 1828, | | 1942, 1944-1953, 1958-1962, 1963-1968 | | 1972, 1973 | | G.Sangiang Api | Sumbawa | 1512, 1517, 1821, 1860, 1911, 1912, 1927, 1953, 1964, 1965 |
| | Rokatenda | Flores | 1929, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1972, 1973 | | Niewerker | Banda Islands | 1893, 1925, 1927, ? | | G.Api Wetar | Banda Islands | 1512, 1699, 1934 | | Wurlali, P.Damar | Banda Islands | 1892 | Serawerna,
P.Teon | Banda Islands | 1659, 1660, 1663, 1693, 1904 | Laworkawra,
P.Nila | Banda Islands | 1903, 1932 | | Legatala, P.Serua | Banda Islands | 1683, 1687,1692, 1693, 1694, 1844, | | 1858, 1859, 1919, 192 | | Banda Api | Banda Islands | 1586, 1598-1602, 1609, 1615, 1632, | | 1683,1690-1696, 1712, 1723, 1749 | | ?, 1762, 1765, 1766, 1773, 1775, ?, | | 1778, 1816,1820, 1824, 1890, 1901, | | 1902 | | G.Colo | Sangir Islands | 1898, between 1928-1948 | | Ruang | Sangir Islands | 1808, 1810, 1836, 1840, 1856, 1870, | | 1871, 1874, 1889, 1904, 1905, 1914, | | 1915, 1946, 1949 | Krangetang,
Api Siau | Sangir Islands | 1675, 1712, 1825, 1864, 1883, 1886, | | 1887, 1892, 1899, 1900, 1905, 1922, | | 1924, 1926, 1930, 1935, 1940, 1941, | | 1947, 1948, 1949, 1953, 1961, 1967, | | 1970, 1971, 1974 | | Banua Wuhu | Sangir Islands | 1835, 1889, 1895, 1904, 1918, 1919 | Awu,
Great Sanger | Sangir Islands | 1640, 1641, between 1641-1677, 1711, | | 1812, 1856, 1875, 1885, ?, 1892, 1893, | | 1931, 1921, 1922, 1931, 1966, | | Submarin | Sangir Islands | 1922 | | Dukono | North Mollucas | 1953 | | Gamalama | North Mollucas | Very active., 1962 | | Kie Besi | North Mollucas | 1646, 1760, 1781, ?, 1860, 1861, 1890 | | |
| | Table 3 Volcano Island that being Active | |
| | Note: xxxx is eruption that generated tsunami | |
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| | 4. Tsunamis characteristics | |
| | Tsunami could be generated by many kind sources, e.g. tsunami due to volcano, landslide, rapture, debris flow, earthquake, and etc. Since the earthquake epicenter occurred in the ocean, mostly is followed by tsunami or so-called earthquake tsunami. Table.1 shows during the period 1600 to 1998, there are 123 occurrence of destructive earthquakes (24), tsunami earthquake (90) and tsunami volcano (8) and tsunami landslide (1). Mostly of them having regional distant sources. Percentages of the occurrence are tabulated on Table.4. | |
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| Number of Occurrence | Percent | | Earthquake | 24 | 19.51 | | Tsunami earthquake | 90 | 73.17 | | Tsunami volcano | 8 | 8.13 | | Tsunami landslide | 1 | 0.65 | | Total | 123 | 100 | | |
| | Table 4 Tsunami Generated by Several Source | |
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| | The spatial distribution of the regional earthquake is shown in Figure.2. The source are concentrated along Andaman islands, the Indian ocean side of Western Sumatra and Southern Java, in the south of Eastern Sunda arc, in the north of Sumbawa and Flores, in the Mollucas Sea region, in the west and north cost of Sulawesi, and northern New Guinea island.
With considering the tectonic plate which controls the earthquakes and in aim to practical propose, Indonesia region could be divided within 6 zones, (Figure.3) such as: | |
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| | | - Zone-A : | Java trench and Sunda Arc, including, Indian Ocean, western of Sumatra Is., Southern Java Is., Bali, and Lombok island. | | - Zone-B : | Flores sea, including, flores, sumbawa, southern part of S and SE Sulawesi, Bone bay. | | - Zone-C : | Makassar street and N Sulawesi Trench | | - Zone-D : | Timor Trough and Banda Tranch (Banda Arc) including : Banda Islands, South-western of New Guinea (Irian Jaya) Island, southern of Ceram and Buru Is. | | - Zona-E : | Mollucas, inculding: Halmahera, and Ambon island, | | - Zone-F : | New Guinea Trench including Northern part of New Guinea island | | |
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The activity each zone are shown in Figure.4 and also in Table.5 | |
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| | | Figure 2 | Seismicity map of the Indonesia region (after Puspito, 1996). Data from ISC (International Seismological Center) for the period 1984 to 1993, including 2,738 earthquakes. | | |
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| | | Figure 3 | Seismotectonics of 6 Indonesian zones (Zones–A, B, C, D, E, and F). Dotted lines show the boundaries of each zone. | | |
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| | | Figure 4 | Location of tsunami and year of their occurrence. Solid circles, triangles and a square respectively indicate tsunamigenic earthquakes, volcanoes and a landslides. | | |
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| | Zone | Region | Tsunami generation number | Percent | A | Indian Oc.-Sumatera-Java-Bali-Lombok | 38 | 30.9 | B | Flores sea-Timor-Sumbawa | 21 | 17.1 | C | Makassar St, North Celebes | 20 | 16.3 | D | Banda sea- Ceram | 14 | 11.4 | E | Mollucas-Halmahera | 23 | 18.7 | F | North Irian Jaya | 7 | 5.7 | Total | 123 | 100 | | |
| | Table.5 Tsunami activity around Indonesia | |
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| | References | |
| | Hamilton, W., (1979), Tectonics of Indonesian region, U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 1078, 345p.
Iida K., (1983), Some Remark on the Occurrence of Tsunamigenic Earthquakes around the Pacific, Tsunamis: Their Sci. and Eng., ed. by K. Iida and Iwasaki, Terapub, pp. 61-76
Puspito, N.T., (1995), General Seismological Features of Tsunamis in Indonesia, Proceedings, Workshop on Tsunami 1995. LPTP-BPP Teknologi, Indonesia.
Ibrahim, G., Untoro, M. Ahmad, and R. Hendrawan, (1989), Earthquake Statistics in Indonesia, Technical Report, Intitute of Technology, Bandung, (in Indonesian).
McCaffrey, R., (1988), Active tectonics of the Sunda and Banda arcs., J. Geophys. Res., 93, 15163-15182.
Puspito, N.T. and Shimazaki, (1995), Mantle Structure and seismotectonics of the Sunda and Banda arcs, 42, 209-226.
Utsu, T., (1992) Catalog of Destructive earthquakes in the World, 1500-1992, Earthquakes Disaster Reduction Handbook, In Commemoration of the 30th Anniversary of International Institute of Seismology and Earthquake Engineering, pp. 1-24.
Ismail, S., 1989, Tsunami Indonesia, Balai Diklat BMG, Dep. Hub. Intern seminar (unpublished). | |
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